A Laws Passed in an Ordinary Fashion by Legislature, as Opposed to a Fundamental Law
countries and about of the USA. Continental law is adopted in continental Europe, many countries in Asia and Africa and in
former socialist states.
(2) English Common law has developed gradually through
out the history and is based on community, court rulings (prec
edents) and statutes. The most important concept of English
Common law is the doctrine of precedent. Precedent is a deci
sion made by a higher courtroom on some example that serves example for lower courts to follow if the essential elements of the case are the aforementioned. Thus, judges take to use existing precedents
to each new case. If the elements of the case are the same equally
39
those of previous recorded cases they take to make the same determination.
(3) Sometimes governments make new laws (statutes) to
modify or clarify common law, or to make rules which accept not existed before. Judges interpret those statutes and their
interpretations become new precedents. Therefore, judges practise not only employ law. They brand police every bit their interpretations are
precedents for other courts to follow.
(4) Another important concept of the common law is the
principle of equity. By the 14th century people of England had become dissatisfied with the inflexibility of common law. A new system adult which recognised the rights that were not
enforced as common police force but were equitable or just (the correct
to force someone to carry out a contract, called specific perfor
mance, or the right of the beneficiary of the trust).
(5) The courts of common police and of disinterestedness existed along
side for centuries. An equitable ruling on the same instance pre
vailed. The problem was that a person had to start an activeness in 2 different courts in lodge to go a satisfactory solution. For instance, a person had to seek specific performance in a court of equity and damages (monetary bounty) in a mutual law court. That is why in 1873 the two systems were unified.
(6) Continental systems are often called codified law sys
tems as they have resulted from government attempts to pro
duce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
The legislators wanted to prove that the legal rights of the citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and to
separate legislature and judiciary. Information technology was the state that was to make new laws, not the courts. The courts could simply apply the law that the governments had made. Making new codes the constabulary
makers were influenced by the codes produced in the 7th century under the direction of Roman Emperor Justinian. Thus appeared the name — "Roman law".
The main concept of Civil constabulary is a regime code. A lawmaking is a law passed by a legislative torso and written in a formal document.
40
(seven) Information technology is of import non to exaggerate the differences betwixt these two traditions of law as many countries use both (the
U.s.). The articulate distinction betwixt legislature and judiciary has also weakened (Germany, French republic and Italy).
III. Read the text again and do the post-obit exercises.
A. Fill in the table.
Characteristics
Common Law
Civil Law
1. Origin
England
(11th century)
2. Countries plant in
3. Central chemical element
Precedent
4. Style of legal
reasoning
Inductive — reasoning in private cases leads to general rules
Deductive —decisions reached by reasoning from general rules are practical to item cases
5. Function of judges
Judges utilize laws that the government accept made
half-dozen. Legal principles
Principles are flexible; based on existent facts, develop in private cases.
Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts
Principles are fixed and non e'er stand for to irresolute circumstances; full general principles are applied to private cases
B. Answer the following questions.
1. Why are systems of police force different in different countries?
2. What are the two main traditions of constabulary in the world?
3. What is common law based on?
4. What is the well-nigh important concept of common police force?
5. What is a precedent?
41
half-dozen. What are the judges guided by when they make a decision?
seven. Do governments make new laws? Why?
viii. What do judges do with new laws?
9. Do judges make laws? In what cases?
x. Why did the tradition of equity announced?
11. What types of courts existed in England until 1873?
12. Why were the two systems of courts unified?
thirteen. What are continental systems often called?
14. What have continental systems resulted from?
15. What did the lawmakers want to show?
sixteen. Could judges make law in continental systems?
17. Why is continental law often called Roman law?
eighteen. What is a code?
nineteen. What is the difference between mutual police force and continental law?
IV. Exercises
Exercise 1. Supply Russian equivalents.
court ruling to analyze the constabulary
Case law to develop gradually previous cases to apply existing precedents to new cases to interpret statutes specific performance doctrine of precedent to carry out a contract monetary compensation to originate in the state codified police force systems to recognise the rights legislature to unify smth judiciary legislator principle of equity to modify a law to be dissatisfied with smth college court
42
Practise 2. Discussion formation.
A. Complete the table.
Verb
Noun
Adjective
product to legislate money to decide equity to interpret description satisfactory to perform code influence
B. Fill in the gaps with the advisable word.
ane. Congress is United states of america legislative body (legislate).
2. Parliament _____________ dozens of new statutes every twelvemonth to modify the existing law (product).
3. Sometimes it takes a lot of time to brand a correct ___________
(determine).
4. People started request the King to give an ______________ solution (equity).
v. Judges' __________________ of the statutes become new precedents (interpret).
6. Nosotros have to _____________ this law (clarification).
7. This court ruling does not _____________ us (satisfactory).
8. Courts of disinterestedness enforced specific _____________________
(perform).
9. Justinian tried to ______________________ many aspects of life(code).
10. Napoleon Code fabricated a slap-up __________________ on the evolution of Civil police (influence).
43
Do iii. Match words and collocations with the ones
that have like meanings.
i.
equitable
a.
to use
2.
legislator
b. to modify
iii.
tradition
c.
lawmaker
four.
statute
d. to make smth clear
5.
distinction
e.
off-white
6.
Common law
f.
code
vii.
to modify
yard. Example police force
8.
to clarify
h. monetary compensation
9.
Continental law
i.
difference
x. court ruling
j.
precedent
11. damages
k. Roman law
12. to apply
50.
custom
xiii. to adopt a police force
m. to pass a law
Exercise 4. Antonyms.
A. Give antonyms and interpret them.
1) satisfied — dis ________________________
flexible — in __________________________
to interpret — mis ______________________
willing — un _________________________
essential — in / united nations ______________________
equitable — in ________________________
2) legal, merely, off-white, formal, important, possible, agreement, necessary, satisfactory
B. Choose the appropriate discussion.
1.The courtroom ruling was so just / unjust that nosotros had to entreatment.
2.As a rule continental legal systems are quite flexible /
inflexible
iii.The judge did not hateful this. His words were misinterpret-
ed / interpreted
44
iv.People of England became satisfied / dissatisfied with
flexibility
/ inflexibility of common law courts.
5.It is legal / illegal to sell tobacco to someone under 16.
six.It is equitable / inequitable that one man should suffer for the crimes of another.
7.Those facts are non important. They are essential / inessential /
unessential
Exercise 5. Supply English equivalents.
законодатель предыдущие дела признавать права быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
создать свод законов справедливый римское право изменять закон обычай кодифицированная правовая система законодательный орган решение суда начать дело в суде бывшие социалистические государства выполнять договор добиваться, требовать возмещения убытков толковать закон разъяснять смысл закона принимать закон влиять на что-л.
следовать прецеденту удовлетворяющее решение исполнение в натуре принцип справедливости
Exercise 6. Translate the following collocations into
English and make sentences with them.
быть удовлетворенным решением договором правительством права признавать обязанности законы
45
договор выполнять обязанность по договору
(nether the contract)
инструкции дела предыдущие собрания судебные решения социалистические государства бывший президент министр прецеденты к каждому новому делу применять одинаковые законы ко всем людям и странам одинаковые правила ко всем работникам
Exercise 7. Insert prepositions consulting the text.
one. Statute is a law passed _______________ a legislative torso and written _____________ a formal document.
2. People were dissatisfied _________ inflexibility _________ mutual law.
iii. Judges have to apply existing precedents __________ each new instance.
4. Specific performance means to force someone to carry
_____________ a contract.
5. An equitable ruling ____________ the same example prevailed.
vi. Common police force has developed gradually _____________ the history.
7. The courts ___________ mutual law and ____________ equity existed aslope ________________ centuries.
8. English Common Law is based _____________ customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
ix. Continental systems are often called codified law systems as they accept resulted ____________ government attempts to produce a set _____________ codes to govern every legal aspect __________________ life.
46
ten. Information technology is important not to exaggerate the differences __________ these 2 traditions ____________ constabulary.
11. The get-go codes were produced _____________ the 7th century _____________ the direction of Roman Emperor Justinian.
PREPOSITION BANK
to exist satisfied with smth to apply smth to smth to carry out a contract court ruling on smth
Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps with missing words consulting
the text.
1. A person had to first an _____________ in different courts to become a _____________ solution.
2. The legislators wanted to separate ________ and ________.
iii. Governments made attempts to ___________ a gear up of codes to govern every _____________ aspect of life.
4. Precedents are examples for other courts to _____________.
5. A statute is passed by a _____________ body.
six. The courts could simply _____________ the law that the government had _____________ .
7. Budgetary bounty is ofttimes chosen _____________.
8. Judges ______________ the statutes and their interpre tations become new ______________.
nine. Continental systems are often called _________________.
10. Courts of equity _____________ the rights which were not
_____________ as common constabulary.
11. Common law is ___________ by Commonwealth countries.
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences consulting
the text.
one. В мире существуют две основные традиции права.
2. Прецедент служит примером, которому должны следовать другие суды.
iii. Общее право основывается на обычаях, прецедентах и статутах.
47
4. Судьи должны применять существующие прецеденты к каждому новому делу.
5. Государства создают новые законы, чтобы изменить или разъяснить общее право.
6. Континентальные системы часто называют кодифицированными правовыми системами.
7. Законодатели хотели отделить законодательную власть от судебной.
8. Законодательный акт — это закон, принятый законодательным органом и записанный в официальном документе.
9. Cуды могли только применять законы.
ten. Судьи толкуют статуты, и их толкования становятся новыми прецедентами.
11. По одному и тому же делу превалировало решение суда справед ливости.
12. Человек должен был требовать реального исполнения в суде справедливости и возмещения убытков в суде общего права.
Exercise 10. Notice a suitable word or collocation for each
definition.
ane. previous court ruling
a. estimate
2. codification law organization
b. lawmaker
iii. onetime British colonies
c. precedent
4. public officeholder with authority to hear and make up one's mind cases in a law court
d. code
5
sum of money awarded by a court as compensation
e. Commonwealth
6. law passed by a legislative body
f.
judiciary
vii. person who makes laws
g. Civil constabulary
8. the system of law courts in a country
h. amercement
48
Exercise eleven. Use passive sentences in the Present Perfect
equally shown in the example.
Case:
The problem is solved.
— The problem has but been solved
— The problem has already been solved.
— The trouble has been solved lately.
— The trouble has been solved recently.
— The problem hasn't been solved yet.
— The problem has been solved today.
—The problem has been solved this week.
1. A new police is adopted.
2. A set of codes is produced.
three. A new visitor is ready up.
iv. The statutes are interpreted.
v. The tickets are bought.
6. The police force is written in a formal document.
seven. The obligations under the contract are carried out.
8. The dispute is settled.
9. The law is modified.
10. Their rights are recognized.
Practise 12. Modify the sentences using the Passive Voice.
ane. They have passed a new law lately.
ii. They didn't achieve a satisfactory solution.
3. They volition pay amercement.
4. They haven't adopted a new constabulary even so.
5. They didn't recognize the women'south rights for a long time.
6. They have already started an action in courtroom.
vii. Courts use precedents.
eight. Judges translate statutes.
9. They have just made a conclusion.
10. They sought legal advice.
Practice 13. Apply the verbs in the appropriate form.
The Usa President (elect) every four years, and under the
Constitution (serve) no more than than two terms in office. Once the
President (elect), he (select) a cabinet, each member of which
(ostend) past a majority vote in the Senate. Each cabinet member
49
(head) a department in the executive co-operative. The chiffonier
(include), for instance, the Secretary of State, the Secretarial assistant of
Defense force, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Chaser Full general.
Practise 14. Translate the sentences into Russian using
the structures given.
A.
Case:
Information technology is not possible to have a gild without laws.
— Невозможно иметь общество без законов.
1. Information technology is important not to exaggerate the differences between these two traditions.
two. Sometimes it is difficult to apply the doctrine of precedent.
3. It is essential to adopt new laws.
4. It is necessary to internationalize legal standards.
5. It is not easy to achieve a just agreement.
6. Information technology is impossible to settle this dispute right now.
7. Information technology was inconvenient to beginning an action in two unlike courts.
B.
Instance:
Their interpretations are precedents for other
courts to follow.
— Их толкования становятся прецедентами,
которым следуют другие суды.
It is necessary for judges to use existing precedents.
— Cудьям необходимо использовать существующие прецеденты.
one. Precedent is a determination made by a courtroom on some case that serves example for other courts to follow.
2. The offset matter for me to practice is to find out when they arrive.
iii. It is important for them to know the truth.
4. This is a trouble for him to solve.
5. Precedents are for judges to apply.
6. It is difficult for them to carry out the contract.
7. Information technology is necessary for Peter to start an action in court.
8. It is essential for him to settle this dispute immediately.
50
nine. The trouble nether give-and-take was as well complicated for the participants of the congress to cope with.
C.
Example:
If the elements of the case are the same every bit those of previous recorded cases they accept to brand the same decision.
— Если составляющие дела такие же, как в предыдущих делах, они должны вынести такое же решение по делу.
1. The price of tin (олово) is college than that of copper (медь).
ii. At our manufactory in that location are a few machines like to those described in this mag.
3. Ordinary Americans are much more interested in local politics than those at the federal level.
four. Nigh legal systems in Europe, including that of Scotland, are strongly influenced past Roman Law.
5. According to specialists the two central banks most in dependent of the government are those of Switzerland and
Germany.
6. Many companies invest their profits in such spheres as sophisticated technologies and those giving fast returns.
vii. The political power of the U.s. Secretary of State is second only to that of the President.
eight. The House of Lords is considered the upper house of the
British Parliament, just its political powers are much more limited than those of the lower house, the Business firm of Commons.
nine. International police regulates relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those
of another.
Exercise fifteen. Combine 2 sentences into ane using the word
"as".
Instance:
Every country has its own system of police. Each country hasdeveloped differently.
— Every state has its ain system of law as each country has adult differently.
51
1.
Judges make new laws.
a.
People of England were dissatisfied with the inflexibility of common law.
2.
The ii systems were unified.
b.
Our life is irresolute.
3.
Continental systems are often called codified law systems.
c.
The lawmakers were influenced past the codes produced in the seventh century under the direction of
Roman Emperor Justinian.
iv.
It is important not to exaggerate the differences between these two traditions of constabulary.
d.
It was inconvenient for people to starting time an action in ii different courts.
5
Continental law is often called Roman law.
e.
Countries cooperate more and more.
6.
The principle of equity developed.
f.
Their interpretations are precedents for other courts to follow.
7.
New laws appear.
chiliad.
They accept resulted from government attempts to produce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
8.
There are attempts to internationalize legal standards.
h.
Many countries use both.
Exercise sixteen.
A. Change the following collocations using adverbs.
Case:
a gradual development — to develop gradually
1. reasonable behaviour
ii. a fair decision
52
3. a different development
iv. a quick adoption
v. a clear estimation
vi. an equitable agreement
vii. a legal regime
8. a formal refusal
ix. an entire support
10. a global solution
B. Interpret the sentences into English using adjectives and
adverbs.
1. Я полностью вас поддерживаю.
2. Они официально отказали мне.
three. Законодатели быстро приняли закон.
4. Это правительство не является законным.
5. Каждая страна развивается по-своему (букв. по-разному).
6. Мы должны думать глобально.
vii. В мире есть много глобальных проблем.
8. Я надеюсь, мы примем справедливое решение по этому делу.
Exercise 17.
A. Read the Russian part of the text comparing information technology with the
English part of the text.
ane.
Каждая страна имеет свою собственную правовую систему, т.к. каждая страна развивалась по-своему.
Every land has its own organisation of constabulary as each country has developed differently.
2.
Однако существует две основные традиции права в мире — английское общее право и римское, или континентальное, право.
Notwithstanding, there are ii master traditions of law in the world —
English Common law, or Instance law, and Civil police force, or Roman law,
or Continental police force.
iii.
Английское общее право при нято многими странами Содружества и на большей части территории США.
English Common police force is adopted past many Commonwealth countries and about of the U.s..
53
four.
Континентальное право принято в континентальной
Европе, во многих странах
Азии и Африки и в бывших социалистических странах.
Continental law is adopted in continental Europe, many countries in Asia and Africa and in quondam socialist states.
v.
Английское общее право развивалось постепенно на протяжении истории и основывается на обычаях, решениях суда (прецедентах) и статутах.
English Common police force has developed gradually throughout the history and is based on customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
6.
Самым важным понятием английского общего права является доктрина прецедента.
The virtually important concept of
English Common police force is the doctrine of precedent.
seven.
Прецедент — это решение, принятое судом вышестоящей инстанции по какому-то делу, которое служит примером для судов нижестоящей инстанции, если основные элементы дела совпадают.
Precedent is a decision made past a higher court on some case that serves case for lower courts to follow if the essential elements of the case are the aforementioned.
8.
Таким образом, судьи должны применять существующие прецеденты к каждому новому делу.
Thus, judges take to use existing precedents to each new instance.
9.
Если элементы дела такие же, как в предыдущих делах, они должны вынести такое же решение по делу.
If the elements of the case are the same as those of previous recorded cases they have to make the same decision.
10. Иногда государства создают новые законы (статуты), чтобы изменить или разъяснить общее право или создать правила, которые не существовали прежде.
Sometimes governments make new laws (statutes) to modify or analyze mutual law, or to brand rules, which have not existed before.
xi. Судьи толкуют эти статуты, и их толкования становятся новыми прецедентами.
Judges interpret those statutes and their interpretations become new precedents.
54
12. Следовательно, судьи не только применяют право.
Therefore, judges do not merely apply constabulary.
xiii. Они создают право, т.к. их толкования становятся прецедентами, которым следуют другие суды.
They make police every bit their interpretations are precedents for other courts to follow.
14. Другим важным понятием английского общего права является принцип справедливости.
Another important concept of the common constabulary is the principle of equity.
xv. К концу XIV века народ
Англии был неудовлетворен негибкостью общего права.
By the 14th century people of
England had become dissatisfied with the inflexibility of mutual constabulary.
16. Развилась новая система, которая признавала права, которые не применялись в общем праве, но считались справедливыми (право заставить кого-либо исполнить контракт, называемое «реальным исполнением», или право бенефициария доверительной собственности).
A new arrangement developed which recognized the rights that were not enforced as common law but were equitable or just (the correct to force someone to conduct out a contract, called specific performance, or the right of the beneficiary of the trust).
17. Суды общего права и суды справедливости сосуществовали веками.
The courts of common police and of equity existed alongside for centuries.
xviii. По одному и тому же делу превалировало решение суда справедливости.
An equitable ruling on the same case prevailed.
xix. Проблема была в том, что человек был вынужден начинать дело в двух различных судах, для того чтобы получить удовлетворяющее его решение.
The problem was that a person had to start an action in ii dissimilar courts in order to become a satisfactory solution.
55
20. Например, человек должен был требовать реального исполнения в суде справедливости и возмещения убытков в суде общего права.
For example, a person had to seek specific performance in a court of disinterestedness and damages
(budgetary compensation) in a common law courtroom.
21. Вот почему в 1873 году эти две системы были объединены.
That is why in 1873 the two systems were unified.
22. Континентальные системы часто называют кодифицированными правовыми системами, т.к. они явились результатом попыток государств создать свод законов для управления всеми сторонами жизни.
Continental systems are frequently called codification police systems as they have resulted from authorities attempts to produce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
23. Законодатели хотели показать, что права граждан исходят от государства, a не от местных обычаев, и хотели отделить законодательную власть от судебной.
The legislators wanted to evidence that the legal rights of the citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and to separate legislature and judiciary.
24. Государство, а не суды должно было принимать новые за коны.
It was the land that was to make new laws, not the courts.
25. Cуды могли только применять нормы права, которые создало государство.
The courts could only employ the law that the regime had fabricated.
26. Создавая новые законы, законодатели находились под влиянием законов, созданных в VII веке под руководством римского императора Юстиниана.
Making new codes the lawmakers were influenced past the codes produced in the 7th century under the direction of Roman
Emperor Justinian.
27. Так появилось название
«римское право».
Thus appeared the name —
"Roman law".
56
28. Основным понятием римского права является законодательный акт, принятый государством.
The primary concept of Civil police is a government code.
29. Законодательный акт — это закон, принятый законодательным органом и записанный в официальном документе.
A code is a law passed by a legislative body and written in a formal document.
xxx. Важно не преувеличивать разницу между двумя традициями в праве, т.к. многие страны используют обе традиции (США).
It is important not to exaggerate the differences between these 2 traditions of constabulary as many countries use both (the USA).
31. Четкое разделение между законодательной и судебной властью также ослабло (Германия, Франция и Италия).
The clear distinction between legislature and judiciary has as well weakened (Frg, France and
Italy).
B. Tell the text using the following outline.
one. Two master traditions of constabulary in the world.
2. Common law:
— doctrine of precedent;
— statutes;
— principle of equity;
— the role of judges.
3. Continental police:
— code;
— separation of powers;
— the role of judges.
5. Active Vocabulary
1.
to adopt / pass / produce a police force
[əˈdɔpt]
принимать закон
two.
to apply [əˈplaɪ] smth to smth
to apply existing precedents to new cases применять что-л. к чему-л.
применять существующие прецеденты к новым делам
57
3.
to carry out a contract
выполнить контракт
4.
Civil [ˈsɪvl] police /
Roman
[ˈrəumən]
police force /
Continental
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl]
constabulary
римское право / континентальное право
5.
to clarify [ˈklærɪfaɪ] a law
разъяснять смысл закона
half dozen.
code [kəud]
сodified police system закон, законодательный акт, кодекс кодифицированная правовая система
seven.
Common police force / Example law
общее право / прецедентное право
eight.
damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz] /
budgetary compensation
to seek (sought) damages возмещение убытков добиваться, требовать возмещения убытков
9.
decision / court ruling on a case
to brand a decision / courtroom ruling on a case решение суда по делу выносить / принимать решение по делу
10. to enforce [inˈfɔ:s] rights
осуществлять права
xi. equity [ˈekwɪtɪ]
principle of disinterestedness court of equity
(in)equitable [ˈekwɪtəbl]
справедливость принцип справедливости суд справедливости
(не)справедливый
12. college court
суд вышестоящей инстанции
13. to influence [ˈɪnfluəns] smth
влиять на что-л.
fourteen. to translate [ɪnˈtə:prɪt] a law
interpretation толковать закон толкование
15. judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
судебная власть
sixteen. legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv] torso
законодательный орган
17. legislator / lawmaker
[ˈledʒɪsleɪtə]
законодатель
eighteen. legislature [ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə]
законодательная власть
nineteen. lower court
суд нижестоящей инстанции
twenty. to modify a law
[ˈmɔdɪfaɪ]
вносить поправки в закон, изменять закон
58
21. precedent [ˈpresɪdənt]
doctrine of precedent to follow a precedent прецедент доктрина прецедента следовать прецеденту
22. previous [ˈpri:vjəs]
previous recorded example предыдущий предыдущее дело, зафиксированное в Сборнике судебных решений
23. to exist satisfied with smth
ant.
to exist dissatisfied with smth satisfactory solution быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
быть неудовлетворенным чем-л.
удовлетворяющее решение
24. specific functioning
[spɪˈsɪfɪk]
реальное исполнение, исполнение в натуре
25. statute [ˈstætju:t]
статут; закон, выраженный в законодательном акте парламента; норма
26. system of law / legal organization
система права
Exercise 1. Read the text beneath and cull the discussion
which best fits each infinite.
A.
legal system apply continental constabulary
Roman code Roman
law
Civil lawis the nigh common system of law in the earth.
Other names for the system are _______ _______ and _______
_______. In this system there exists a fix of laws or a legal
_______. These laws are abstract principles rather than physical facts. It is the job of the approximate to interpret and _______ these principles. The outset systems of this kind come from the _______
Empire. An of import modernistic instance is the Napoleonic code of
1804 which is the ground of the French ______________.
B.
legal cases judge previous precedent
59
Common constabulary depends on what a court and a __________ determine in individual _______. The judge's decision depends on the decisions of other judges in _________ similar cases and will influence similar cases in the future. If the case is the first of this kind, and so it is the duty of the judge to create a _________.
This is the _________system in the U.s.a., the Great britain and many other
English-speaking countries.
Practise 2. Translate using the Agile Vocabulary.
A.
1. Каждый год много новых законов принимается британским парламентом.
ii. Если договор не выполнен, вы можете начать дело в суде.
3. Судьи должны толковать существующие законы.
4. Он не был удовлетворен решением суда.
5. Если вы пострадали в аварии на железной дороге, вам выплатят убытки.
6. В странах континентального права судьи могут только применять законы.
7. Конгресс является законодательным органом в США.
8. Законы записаны в Конституции.
9. Иногда трудно добиться возмещения ущерба.
10. Этот вопрос обсуждался на предыдущем собрании.
B.
Прецедент — это судебное дело, устанавливающее принцип или правило, которое суд должен использовать при решении дел с подобными фактами в будущем. Прецедент, которому должны следовать суды, называется обязательным (binding) прецедентом. В соответствии с доктриной прецедента суд нижестоящей инстанции должен следовать решениям суда вышестоящей инстанции, если основные элементы дела совпадают. Суды должны также следовать своим собственным решениям. Суды вышестоящей инстанции не обязаны исполнять решения судов нижестоящей инстанции. Суд вышестоящей инстанции может изменить существующий прецедент, только если у него для этого достаточно оснований (simply if it has a good reason for information technology).
60
Half-dozen. Central Terms
ane. Code [kəud] (statute)
a constabulary passed by a legislative trunk and written in a formal document.
2. Common law
a legal arrangement adult in the 11th cen tury in England. It is based on customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
3. Continental
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl]
law (Civil
police force, Roman constabulary)
a legal system that is based on a prepare of laws or a legal code created by a legislative body.
4. Equity [ˈekwɪtɪ]
a legal system adult in the 14th cen tury in England to deal with inflexibility of mutual law.
5. Precedent [ˈpresɪdənt]
a decision made by a college courtroom on some case that serves example for lower courts to follow if the essentialelements of the instance are the aforementioned.
Vii. Additional Materials
Exercise i. Read the text and decide whether these sta
tements are true (T) or false (F).
one. Legal systems have to be flexible.
2. Principles ofequity are applied nowadays.
iii. The Court of Chancery is still part of the English legal system.
4. The Lord Chancellor did not deal with criminal cases.
5. Specific performance, injunction and damages are equitable remedies
Disinterestedness
As a rule legal systems are quite inflexible. In fact, they have to exist, otherwise people could non exist certain how a case would be decided.
Over the centuries English judge-made lawhas been divided into two main types: common law and equity.
61
Equity developed in the 14th century equally a style of dealing with the inflexibility of English legal system. Equity became a subsidiary system that corrected common police force which was too rigid. Also, the process of the mutual law courts was ho-hum, highly technical and very expensive. Some other serious trouble was that the use of juries became widespread, fifty-fifty in ceremonious cases, and they could be intimidated, bribed and "packed" (filled with the friends of one of the parties).
In the late Middle Ages in England, litigants who could not afford to go to the common law courts or were dissatisfied with their decisions could petition the Rex. He would then refer cases to the Lord Chancellor. In dealing with these petitions the
Lord Chancellor developed a kind of legal system of his ain and came to preside over his own court. It was called the Courtroom of
Chancery. The Chancellor did not try criminal cases. He dealt only with civil disputes concerning, for example, matters of property and breaches of contract. He set out to practise justice in these cases where the parties (people involved in a case) were able to evidence that the common constabulary courts were non able or prepared to do justice.
If two people fabricated an agreement (a contract), i (the seller) to sell a firm and the other (the heir-apparent) to buy it, and the seller refused to sell, the common police force courtswould grant the buyer a sum of coin to compensate him for the impairment done, or for the inconvenience which he had suffered. In these circumstances, withal, money might not exist enough. After all, on the promise of a business firm sale the buyer might have sold his own business firm and made many plans. The Court of Chanceryhad the correct to order the seller to go on his promise. He would be made to sell the house, and permit the buyer to move into it.
Thus appeared equitable remedies such as specific performance and injunction. Actually, equitable remedies are annihilation other than damages. The law that was given in the Court of
Chancery was known every bit equity, a discussion meaning justice and fairness.
62
The essential principle by which the Court of Chancery acted was that anybody should receive fairness and justice. There were three important conditions which a person seeking justice from the Courtroom of Chancery had to meet:
• He had to bear witness that he could non receive justice in the mutual law courts.
• He had to show that he was himself without blame. This was called "coming to court with make clean hands".
• He had to show that he had not delayed in bringing his case before the court.
In the 17th century it was established that where there was a divergence between the common law and equity, equity would prevail.
The Courtroom of Chancery that administeredequity was abolished by the Judicature Acts 1873–1875. Since then, the common police force and equity accept been administered past the same courts.
Exercise 2. Put the paragraphs of the text into the correct
order.
Napoleon's Law
A. Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican soldier who became emperor of France after the French Revolution, established in
1800 five commissions to refine and organize the diverse legal systems of France. The result, enacted in 1804, was the Napoleon's Code.
B. The laws of much of continental Europe (particularly
French republic), of Quebec in Canada, and of much of Latin America — along with the ceremonious laws of Louisiana — owe their mod class largely to the work of a man who never even studied constabulary.
C. The code was adopted intact in most of the areas of
Europe that Napoleon dominated and spread from at that place across the Atlantic, taking root particularly in French-speaking American communities. Many of its principles are still in force today.
D. Some of its original 2,281 articles were afflicted past his thinking, even though he was completely cocky-taught in legal matters. The code was a triumphant attempt to create a legal
63
organization that treated all citizens as equals without regard to their rank or previous privileges. It was as well so clearly written that it could be read and understood by ordinary people at a time when just Latin scholars could make sense of the earlier laws handed down since Roman times.
Do three.
1) The Magna Carta is one of the principal documents of English
unwritten Constitution. Write a paragraph virtually the
Magna Carta. Apply the following information.
Magna Carta (Great Charter)
King John, 1215 / to sign / nether the threat of civil war to establish the principle of express government
to limit the power of the monarch not absolute to protect against unjust penalisation and the loss of life, freedom, and holding except according to law not to punish a denizen without a fair trial 39
those of previous recorded cases they take to make the same determination.
(3) Sometimes governments make new laws (statutes) to
modify or clarify common law, or to make rules which accept not existed before. Judges interpret those statutes and their
interpretations become new precedents. Therefore, judges practise not only employ law. They brand police every bit their interpretations are
precedents for other courts to follow.
(4) Another important concept of the common law is the
principle of equity. By the 14th century people of England had become dissatisfied with the inflexibility of common law. A new system adult which recognised the rights that were not
enforced as common police force but were equitable or just (the correct
to force someone to carry out a contract, called specific perfor
mance, or the right of the beneficiary of the trust).
(5) The courts of common police and of disinterestedness existed along
side for centuries. An equitable ruling on the same instance pre
vailed. The problem was that a person had to start an activeness in 2 different courts in lodge to go a satisfactory solution. For instance, a person had to seek specific performance in a court of equity and damages (monetary bounty) in a mutual law court. That is why in 1873 the two systems were unified.
(6) Continental systems are often called codified law sys
tems as they have resulted from government attempts to pro
duce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
The legislators wanted to prove that the legal rights of the citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and to
separate legislature and judiciary. Information technology was the state that was to make new laws, not the courts. The courts could simply apply the law that the governments had made. Making new codes the constabulary
makers were influenced by the codes produced in the 7th century under the direction of Roman Emperor Justinian. Thus appeared the name — "Roman law".
The main concept of Civil constabulary is a regime code. A lawmaking is a law passed by a legislative torso and written in a formal document.
40
(seven) Information technology is of import non to exaggerate the differences betwixt these two traditions of law as many countries use both (the
U.s.). The articulate distinction betwixt legislature and judiciary has also weakened (Germany, French republic and Italy).
III. Read the text again and do the post-obit exercises.
A. Fill in the table.
Characteristics
Common Law
Civil Law
1. Origin
England
(11th century)
2. Countries plant in
3. Central chemical element
Precedent
4. Style of legal
reasoning
Inductive — reasoning in private cases leads to general rules
Deductive —decisions reached by reasoning from general rules are practical to item cases
5. Function of judges
Judges utilize laws that the government accept made
half-dozen. Legal principles
Principles are flexible; based on existent facts, develop in private cases.
Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts
Principles are fixed and non e'er stand for to irresolute circumstances; full general principles are applied to private cases
B. Answer the following questions.
1. Why are systems of police force different in different countries?
2. What are the two main traditions of constabulary in the world?
3. What is common law based on?
4. What is the well-nigh important concept of common police force?
5. What is a precedent?
41
half-dozen. What are the judges guided by when they make a decision?
seven. Do governments make new laws? Why?
viii. What do judges do with new laws?
9. Do judges make laws? In what cases?
x. Why did the tradition of equity announced?
11. What types of courts existed in England until 1873?
12. Why were the two systems of courts unified?
thirteen. What are continental systems often called?
14. What have continental systems resulted from?
15. What did the lawmakers want to show?
sixteen. Could judges make law in continental systems?
17. Why is continental law often called Roman law?
eighteen. What is a code?
nineteen. What is the difference between mutual police force and continental law?
IV. Exercises
Exercise 1. Supply Russian equivalents.
court ruling to analyze the constabulary
Case law to develop gradually previous cases to apply existing precedents to new cases to interpret statutes specific performance doctrine of precedent to carry out a contract monetary compensation to originate in the state codified police force systems to recognise the rights legislature to unify smth judiciary legislator principle of equity to modify a law to be dissatisfied with smth college court
42
Practise 2. Discussion formation.
A. Complete the table.
Verb
Noun
Adjective
product to legislate money to decide equity to interpret description satisfactory to perform code influence
B. Fill in the gaps with the advisable word.
ane. Congress is United states of america legislative body (legislate).
2. Parliament _____________ dozens of new statutes every twelvemonth to modify the existing law (product).
3. Sometimes it takes a lot of time to brand a correct ___________
(determine).
4. People started request the King to give an ______________ solution (equity).
v. Judges' __________________ of the statutes become new precedents (interpret).
6. Nosotros have to _____________ this law (clarification).
7. This court ruling does not _____________ us (satisfactory).
8. Courts of disinterestedness enforced specific _____________________
(perform).
9. Justinian tried to ______________________ many aspects of life(code).
10. Napoleon Code fabricated a slap-up __________________ on the evolution of Civil police (influence).
43
Do iii. Match words and collocations with the ones
that have like meanings.
i.
equitable
a.
to use
2.
legislator
b. to modify
iii.
tradition
c.
lawmaker
four.
statute
d. to make smth clear
5.
distinction
e.
off-white
6.
Common law
f.
code
vii.
to modify
yard. Example police force
8.
to clarify
h. monetary compensation
9.
Continental law
i.
difference
x. court ruling
j.
precedent
11. damages
k. Roman law
12. to apply
50.
custom
xiii. to adopt a police force
m. to pass a law
Exercise 4. Antonyms.
A. Give antonyms and interpret them.
1) satisfied — dis ________________________
flexible — in __________________________
to interpret — mis ______________________
willing — un _________________________
essential — in / united nations ______________________
equitable — in ________________________
2) legal, merely, off-white, formal, important, possible, agreement, necessary, satisfactory
B. Choose the appropriate discussion.
1.The courtroom ruling was so just / unjust that nosotros had to entreatment.
2.As a rule continental legal systems are quite flexible /
inflexible
iii.The judge did not hateful this. His words were misinterpret-
ed / interpreted
44
iv.People of England became satisfied / dissatisfied with
flexibility
/ inflexibility of common law courts.
5.It is legal / illegal to sell tobacco to someone under 16.
six.It is equitable / inequitable that one man should suffer for the crimes of another.
7.Those facts are non important. They are essential / inessential /
unessential
Exercise 5. Supply English equivalents.
законодатель предыдущие дела признавать права быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
создать свод законов справедливый римское право изменять закон обычай кодифицированная правовая система законодательный орган решение суда начать дело в суде бывшие социалистические государства выполнять договор добиваться, требовать возмещения убытков толковать закон разъяснять смысл закона принимать закон влиять на что-л.
следовать прецеденту удовлетворяющее решение исполнение в натуре принцип справедливости
Exercise 6. Translate the following collocations into
English and make sentences with them.
быть удовлетворенным решением договором правительством права признавать обязанности законы
45
договор выполнять обязанность по договору
(nether the contract)
инструкции дела предыдущие собрания судебные решения социалистические государства бывший президент министр прецеденты к каждому новому делу применять одинаковые законы ко всем людям и странам одинаковые правила ко всем работникам
Exercise 7. Insert prepositions consulting the text.
one. Statute is a law passed _______________ a legislative torso and written _____________ a formal document.
2. People were dissatisfied _________ inflexibility _________ mutual law.
iii. Judges have to apply existing precedents __________ each new instance.
4. Specific performance means to force someone to carry
_____________ a contract.
5. An equitable ruling ____________ the same example prevailed.
vi. Common police force has developed gradually _____________ the history.
7. The courts ___________ mutual law and ____________ equity existed aslope ________________ centuries.
8. English Common Law is based _____________ customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
ix. Continental systems are often called codified law systems as they accept resulted ____________ government attempts to produce a set _____________ codes to govern every legal aspect __________________ life.
46
ten. Information technology is important not to exaggerate the differences __________ these 2 traditions ____________ constabulary.
11. The get-go codes were produced _____________ the 7th century _____________ the direction of Roman Emperor Justinian.
PREPOSITION BANK
to exist satisfied with smth to apply smth to smth to carry out a contract court ruling on smth
Exercise 8. Fill in the gaps with missing words consulting
the text.
1. A person had to first an _____________ in different courts to become a _____________ solution.
2. The legislators wanted to separate ________ and ________.
iii. Governments made attempts to ___________ a gear up of codes to govern every _____________ aspect of life.
4. Precedents are examples for other courts to _____________.
5. A statute is passed by a _____________ body.
six. The courts could simply _____________ the law that the government had _____________ .
7. Budgetary bounty is ofttimes chosen _____________.
8. Judges ______________ the statutes and their interpre tations become new ______________.
nine. Continental systems are often called _________________.
10. Courts of equity _____________ the rights which were not
_____________ as common constabulary.
11. Common law is ___________ by Commonwealth countries.
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences consulting
the text.
one. В мире существуют две основные традиции права.
2. Прецедент служит примером, которому должны следовать другие суды.
iii. Общее право основывается на обычаях, прецедентах и статутах.
47
4. Судьи должны применять существующие прецеденты к каждому новому делу.
5. Государства создают новые законы, чтобы изменить или разъяснить общее право.
6. Континентальные системы часто называют кодифицированными правовыми системами.
7. Законодатели хотели отделить законодательную власть от судебной.
8. Законодательный акт — это закон, принятый законодательным органом и записанный в официальном документе.
9. Cуды могли только применять законы.
ten. Судьи толкуют статуты, и их толкования становятся новыми прецедентами.
11. По одному и тому же делу превалировало решение суда справед ливости.
12. Человек должен был требовать реального исполнения в суде справедливости и возмещения убытков в суде общего права.
Exercise 10. Notice a suitable word or collocation for each
definition.
ane. previous court ruling
a. estimate
2. codification law organization
b. lawmaker
iii. onetime British colonies
c. precedent
4. public officeholder with authority to hear and make up one's mind cases in a law court
d. code
5
sum of money awarded by a court as compensation
e. Commonwealth
6. law passed by a legislative body
f.
judiciary
vii. person who makes laws
g. Civil constabulary
8. the system of law courts in a country
h. amercement
48
Exercise eleven. Use passive sentences in the Present Perfect
equally shown in the example.
Case:
The problem is solved.
— The problem has but been solved
— The problem has already been solved.
— The trouble has been solved lately.
— The trouble has been solved recently.
— The problem hasn't been solved yet.
— The problem has been solved today.
—The problem has been solved this week.
1. A new police is adopted.
2. A set of codes is produced.
three. A new visitor is ready up.
iv. The statutes are interpreted.
v. The tickets are bought.
6. The police force is written in a formal document.
seven. The obligations under the contract are carried out.
8. The dispute is settled.
9. The law is modified.
10. Their rights are recognized.
Practise 12. Modify the sentences using the Passive Voice.
ane. They have passed a new law lately.
ii. They didn't achieve a satisfactory solution.
3. They volition pay amercement.
4. They haven't adopted a new constabulary even so.
5. They didn't recognize the women'south rights for a long time.
6. They have already started an action in courtroom.
vii. Courts use precedents.
eight. Judges translate statutes.
9. They have just made a conclusion.
10. They sought legal advice.
Practice 13. Apply the verbs in the appropriate form.
The Usa President (elect) every four years, and under the
Constitution (serve) no more than than two terms in office. Once the
President (elect), he (select) a cabinet, each member of which
(ostend) past a majority vote in the Senate. Each cabinet member
49
(head) a department in the executive co-operative. The chiffonier
(include), for instance, the Secretary of State, the Secretarial assistant of
Defense force, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Chaser Full general.
Practise 14. Translate the sentences into Russian using
the structures given.
A.
Case:
Information technology is not possible to have a gild without laws.
— Невозможно иметь общество без законов.
1. Information technology is important not to exaggerate the differences between these two traditions.
two. Sometimes it is difficult to apply the doctrine of precedent.
3. It is essential to adopt new laws.
4. It is necessary to internationalize legal standards.
5. It is not easy to achieve a just agreement.
6. Information technology is impossible to settle this dispute right now.
7. Information technology was inconvenient to beginning an action in two unlike courts.
B.
Instance:
Their interpretations are precedents for other
courts to follow.
— Их толкования становятся прецедентами,
которым следуют другие суды.
It is necessary for judges to use existing precedents.
— Cудьям необходимо использовать существующие прецеденты.
one. Precedent is a determination made by a courtroom on some case that serves example for other courts to follow.
2. The offset matter for me to practice is to find out when they arrive.
iii. It is important for them to know the truth.
4. This is a trouble for him to solve.
5. Precedents are for judges to apply.
6. It is difficult for them to carry out the contract.
7. Information technology is necessary for Peter to start an action in court.
8. It is essential for him to settle this dispute immediately.
50
nine. The trouble nether give-and-take was as well complicated for the participants of the congress to cope with.
C.
Example:
If the elements of the case are the same every bit those of previous recorded cases they accept to brand the same decision.
— Если составляющие дела такие же, как в предыдущих делах, они должны вынести такое же решение по делу.
1. The price of tin (олово) is college than that of copper (медь).
ii. At our manufactory in that location are a few machines like to those described in this mag.
3. Ordinary Americans are much more interested in local politics than those at the federal level.
four. Nigh legal systems in Europe, including that of Scotland, are strongly influenced past Roman Law.
5. According to specialists the two central banks most in dependent of the government are those of Switzerland and
Germany.
6. Many companies invest their profits in such spheres as sophisticated technologies and those giving fast returns.
vii. The political power of the U.s. Secretary of State is second only to that of the President.
eight. The House of Lords is considered the upper house of the
British Parliament, just its political powers are much more limited than those of the lower house, the Business firm of Commons.
nine. International police regulates relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those
of another.
Exercise fifteen. Combine 2 sentences into ane using the word
"as".
Instance:
Every country has its own system of police. Each country hasdeveloped differently.
— Every state has its ain system of law as each country has adult differently.
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1.
Judges make new laws.
a.
People of England were dissatisfied with the inflexibility of common law.
2.
The ii systems were unified.
b.
Our life is irresolute.
3.
Continental systems are often called codified law systems.
c.
The lawmakers were influenced past the codes produced in the seventh century under the direction of
Roman Emperor Justinian.
iv.
It is important not to exaggerate the differences between these two traditions of constabulary.
d.
It was inconvenient for people to starting time an action in ii different courts.
5
Continental law is often called Roman law.
e.
Countries cooperate more and more.
6.
The principle of equity developed.
f.
Their interpretations are precedents for other courts to follow.
7.
New laws appear.
chiliad.
They accept resulted from government attempts to produce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
8.
There are attempts to internationalize legal standards.
h.
Many countries use both.
Exercise sixteen.
A. Change the following collocations using adverbs.
Case:
a gradual development — to develop gradually
1. reasonable behaviour
ii. a fair decision
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3. a different development
iv. a quick adoption
v. a clear estimation
vi. an equitable agreement
vii. a legal regime
8. a formal refusal
ix. an entire support
10. a global solution
B. Interpret the sentences into English using adjectives and
adverbs.
1. Я полностью вас поддерживаю.
2. Они официально отказали мне.
three. Законодатели быстро приняли закон.
4. Это правительство не является законным.
5. Каждая страна развивается по-своему (букв. по-разному).
6. Мы должны думать глобально.
vii. В мире есть много глобальных проблем.
8. Я надеюсь, мы примем справедливое решение по этому делу.
Exercise 17.
A. Read the Russian part of the text comparing information technology with the
English part of the text.
ane.
Каждая страна имеет свою собственную правовую систему, т.к. каждая страна развивалась по-своему.
Every land has its own organisation of constabulary as each country has developed differently.
2.
Однако существует две основные традиции права в мире — английское общее право и римское, или континентальное, право.
Notwithstanding, there are ii master traditions of law in the world —
English Common law, or Instance law, and Civil police force, or Roman law,
or Continental police force.
iii.
Английское общее право при нято многими странами Содружества и на большей части территории США.
English Common police force is adopted past many Commonwealth countries and about of the U.s..
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four.
Континентальное право принято в континентальной
Европе, во многих странах
Азии и Африки и в бывших социалистических странах.
Continental law is adopted in continental Europe, many countries in Asia and Africa and in quondam socialist states.
v.
Английское общее право развивалось постепенно на протяжении истории и основывается на обычаях, решениях суда (прецедентах) и статутах.
English Common police force has developed gradually throughout the history and is based on customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
6.
Самым важным понятием английского общего права является доктрина прецедента.
The virtually important concept of
English Common police force is the doctrine of precedent.
seven.
Прецедент — это решение, принятое судом вышестоящей инстанции по какому-то делу, которое служит примером для судов нижестоящей инстанции, если основные элементы дела совпадают.
Precedent is a decision made past a higher court on some case that serves case for lower courts to follow if the essential elements of the case are the aforementioned.
8.
Таким образом, судьи должны применять существующие прецеденты к каждому новому делу.
Thus, judges take to use existing precedents to each new instance.
9.
Если элементы дела такие же, как в предыдущих делах, они должны вынести такое же решение по делу.
If the elements of the case are the same as those of previous recorded cases they have to make the same decision.
10. Иногда государства создают новые законы (статуты), чтобы изменить или разъяснить общее право или создать правила, которые не существовали прежде.
Sometimes governments make new laws (statutes) to modify or analyze mutual law, or to brand rules, which have not existed before.
xi. Судьи толкуют эти статуты, и их толкования становятся новыми прецедентами.
Judges interpret those statutes and their interpretations become new precedents.
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12. Следовательно, судьи не только применяют право.
Therefore, judges do not merely apply constabulary.
xiii. Они создают право, т.к. их толкования становятся прецедентами, которым следуют другие суды.
They make police every bit their interpretations are precedents for other courts to follow.
14. Другим важным понятием английского общего права является принцип справедливости.
Another important concept of the common constabulary is the principle of equity.
xv. К концу XIV века народ
Англии был неудовлетворен негибкостью общего права.
By the 14th century people of
England had become dissatisfied with the inflexibility of mutual constabulary.
16. Развилась новая система, которая признавала права, которые не применялись в общем праве, но считались справедливыми (право заставить кого-либо исполнить контракт, называемое «реальным исполнением», или право бенефициария доверительной собственности).
A new arrangement developed which recognized the rights that were not enforced as common law but were equitable or just (the correct to force someone to conduct out a contract, called specific performance, or the right of the beneficiary of the trust).
17. Суды общего права и суды справедливости сосуществовали веками.
The courts of common police and of equity existed alongside for centuries.
xviii. По одному и тому же делу превалировало решение суда справедливости.
An equitable ruling on the same case prevailed.
xix. Проблема была в том, что человек был вынужден начинать дело в двух различных судах, для того чтобы получить удовлетворяющее его решение.
The problem was that a person had to start an action in ii dissimilar courts in order to become a satisfactory solution.
55
20. Например, человек должен был требовать реального исполнения в суде справедливости и возмещения убытков в суде общего права.
For example, a person had to seek specific performance in a court of disinterestedness and damages
(budgetary compensation) in a common law courtroom.
21. Вот почему в 1873 году эти две системы были объединены.
That is why in 1873 the two systems were unified.
22. Континентальные системы часто называют кодифицированными правовыми системами, т.к. они явились результатом попыток государств создать свод законов для управления всеми сторонами жизни.
Continental systems are frequently called codification police systems as they have resulted from authorities attempts to produce a set of codes to govern every legal aspect of life.
23. Законодатели хотели показать, что права граждан исходят от государства, a не от местных обычаев, и хотели отделить законодательную власть от судебной.
The legislators wanted to evidence that the legal rights of the citizens originated in the state, not in local customs, and to separate legislature and judiciary.
24. Государство, а не суды должно было принимать новые за коны.
It was the land that was to make new laws, not the courts.
25. Cуды могли только применять нормы права, которые создало государство.
The courts could only employ the law that the regime had fabricated.
26. Создавая новые законы, законодатели находились под влиянием законов, созданных в VII веке под руководством римского императора Юстиниана.
Making new codes the lawmakers were influenced past the codes produced in the 7th century under the direction of Roman
Emperor Justinian.
27. Так появилось название
«римское право».
Thus appeared the name —
"Roman law".
56
28. Основным понятием римского права является законодательный акт, принятый государством.
The primary concept of Civil police is a government code.
29. Законодательный акт — это закон, принятый законодательным органом и записанный в официальном документе.
A code is a law passed by a legislative body and written in a formal document.
xxx. Важно не преувеличивать разницу между двумя традициями в праве, т.к. многие страны используют обе традиции (США).
It is important not to exaggerate the differences between these 2 traditions of constabulary as many countries use both (the USA).
31. Четкое разделение между законодательной и судебной властью также ослабло (Германия, Франция и Италия).
The clear distinction between legislature and judiciary has as well weakened (Frg, France and
Italy).
B. Tell the text using the following outline.
one. Two master traditions of constabulary in the world.
2. Common law:
— doctrine of precedent;
— statutes;
— principle of equity;
— the role of judges.
3. Continental police:
— code;
— separation of powers;
— the role of judges.
5. Active Vocabulary
1.
to adopt / pass / produce a police force
[əˈdɔpt]
принимать закон
two.
to apply [əˈplaɪ] smth to smth
to apply existing precedents to new cases применять что-л. к чему-л.
применять существующие прецеденты к новым делам
57
3.
to carry out a contract
выполнить контракт
4.
Civil [ˈsɪvl] police /
Roman
[ˈrəumən]
police force /
Continental
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl]
constabulary
римское право / континентальное право
5.
to clarify [ˈklærɪfaɪ] a law
разъяснять смысл закона
half dozen.
code [kəud]
сodified police system закон, законодательный акт, кодекс кодифицированная правовая система
seven.
Common police force / Example law
общее право / прецедентное право
eight.
damages [ˈdæmɪdʒɪz] /
budgetary compensation
to seek (sought) damages возмещение убытков добиваться, требовать возмещения убытков
9.
decision / court ruling on a case
to brand a decision / courtroom ruling on a case решение суда по делу выносить / принимать решение по делу
10. to enforce [inˈfɔ:s] rights
осуществлять права
xi. equity [ˈekwɪtɪ]
principle of disinterestedness court of equity
(in)equitable [ˈekwɪtəbl]
справедливость принцип справедливости суд справедливости
(не)справедливый
12. college court
суд вышестоящей инстанции
13. to influence [ˈɪnfluəns] smth
влиять на что-л.
fourteen. to translate [ɪnˈtə:prɪt] a law
interpretation толковать закон толкование
15. judiciary [dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
судебная власть
sixteen. legislative [ˈledʒɪslətɪv] torso
законодательный орган
17. legislator / lawmaker
[ˈledʒɪsleɪtə]
законодатель
eighteen. legislature [ˈledʒɪsleɪtʃə]
законодательная власть
nineteen. lower court
суд нижестоящей инстанции
twenty. to modify a law
[ˈmɔdɪfaɪ]
вносить поправки в закон, изменять закон
58
21. precedent [ˈpresɪdənt]
doctrine of precedent to follow a precedent прецедент доктрина прецедента следовать прецеденту
22. previous [ˈpri:vjəs]
previous recorded example предыдущий предыдущее дело, зафиксированное в Сборнике судебных решений
23. to exist satisfied with smth
ant.
to exist dissatisfied with smth satisfactory solution быть удовлетворенным чем-л.
быть неудовлетворенным чем-л.
удовлетворяющее решение
24. specific functioning
[spɪˈsɪfɪk]
реальное исполнение, исполнение в натуре
25. statute [ˈstætju:t]
статут; закон, выраженный в законодательном акте парламента; норма
26. system of law / legal organization
система права
Exercise 1. Read the text beneath and cull the discussion
which best fits each infinite.
A.
legal system apply continental constabulary
Roman code Roman
law
Civil lawis the nigh common system of law in the earth.
Other names for the system are _______ _______ and _______
_______. In this system there exists a fix of laws or a legal
_______. These laws are abstract principles rather than physical facts. It is the job of the approximate to interpret and _______ these principles. The outset systems of this kind come from the _______
Empire. An of import modernistic instance is the Napoleonic code of
1804 which is the ground of the French ______________.
B.
legal cases judge previous precedent
59
Common constabulary depends on what a court and a __________ determine in individual _______. The judge's decision depends on the decisions of other judges in _________ similar cases and will influence similar cases in the future. If the case is the first of this kind, and so it is the duty of the judge to create a _________.
This is the _________system in the U.s.a., the Great britain and many other
English-speaking countries.
Practise 2. Translate using the Agile Vocabulary.
A.
1. Каждый год много новых законов принимается британским парламентом.
ii. Если договор не выполнен, вы можете начать дело в суде.
3. Судьи должны толковать существующие законы.
4. Он не был удовлетворен решением суда.
5. Если вы пострадали в аварии на железной дороге, вам выплатят убытки.
6. В странах континентального права судьи могут только применять законы.
7. Конгресс является законодательным органом в США.
8. Законы записаны в Конституции.
9. Иногда трудно добиться возмещения ущерба.
10. Этот вопрос обсуждался на предыдущем собрании.
B.
Прецедент — это судебное дело, устанавливающее принцип или правило, которое суд должен использовать при решении дел с подобными фактами в будущем. Прецедент, которому должны следовать суды, называется обязательным (binding) прецедентом. В соответствии с доктриной прецедента суд нижестоящей инстанции должен следовать решениям суда вышестоящей инстанции, если основные элементы дела совпадают. Суды должны также следовать своим собственным решениям. Суды вышестоящей инстанции не обязаны исполнять решения судов нижестоящей инстанции. Суд вышестоящей инстанции может изменить существующий прецедент, только если у него для этого достаточно оснований (simply if it has a good reason for information technology).
60
Half-dozen. Central Terms
ane. Code [kəud] (statute)
a constabulary passed by a legislative trunk and written in a formal document.
2. Common law
a legal arrangement adult in the 11th cen tury in England. It is based on customs, court rulings (precedents) and statutes.
3. Continental
[ˌkɔntɪˈnentl]
law (Civil
police force, Roman constabulary)
a legal system that is based on a prepare of laws or a legal code created by a legislative body.
4. Equity [ˈekwɪtɪ]
a legal system adult in the 14th cen tury in England to deal with inflexibility of mutual law.
5. Precedent [ˈpresɪdənt]
a decision made by a college courtroom on some case that serves example for lower courts to follow if the essentialelements of the instance are the aforementioned.
Vii. Additional Materials
Exercise i. Read the text and decide whether these sta
tements are true (T) or false (F).
one. Legal systems have to be flexible.
2. Principles ofequity are applied nowadays.
iii. The Court of Chancery is still part of the English legal system.
4. The Lord Chancellor did not deal with criminal cases.
5. Specific performance, injunction and damages are equitable remedies
Disinterestedness
As a rule legal systems are quite inflexible. In fact, they have to exist, otherwise people could non exist certain how a case would be decided.
Over the centuries English judge-made lawhas been divided into two main types: common law and equity.
61
Equity developed in the 14th century equally a style of dealing with the inflexibility of English legal system. Equity became a subsidiary system that corrected common police force which was too rigid. Also, the process of the mutual law courts was ho-hum, highly technical and very expensive. Some other serious trouble was that the use of juries became widespread, fifty-fifty in ceremonious cases, and they could be intimidated, bribed and "packed" (filled with the friends of one of the parties).
In the late Middle Ages in England, litigants who could not afford to go to the common law courts or were dissatisfied with their decisions could petition the Rex. He would then refer cases to the Lord Chancellor. In dealing with these petitions the
Lord Chancellor developed a kind of legal system of his ain and came to preside over his own court. It was called the Courtroom of
Chancery. The Chancellor did not try criminal cases. He dealt only with civil disputes concerning, for example, matters of property and breaches of contract. He set out to practise justice in these cases where the parties (people involved in a case) were able to evidence that the common constabulary courts were non able or prepared to do justice.
If two people fabricated an agreement (a contract), i (the seller) to sell a firm and the other (the heir-apparent) to buy it, and the seller refused to sell, the common police force courtswould grant the buyer a sum of coin to compensate him for the impairment done, or for the inconvenience which he had suffered. In these circumstances, withal, money might not exist enough. After all, on the promise of a business firm sale the buyer might have sold his own business firm and made many plans. The Court of Chanceryhad the correct to order the seller to go on his promise. He would be made to sell the house, and permit the buyer to move into it.
Thus appeared equitable remedies such as specific performance and injunction. Actually, equitable remedies are annihilation other than damages. The law that was given in the Court of
Chancery was known every bit equity, a discussion meaning justice and fairness.
62
The essential principle by which the Court of Chancery acted was that anybody should receive fairness and justice. There were three important conditions which a person seeking justice from the Courtroom of Chancery had to meet:
• He had to bear witness that he could non receive justice in the mutual law courts.
• He had to show that he was himself without blame. This was called "coming to court with make clean hands".
• He had to show that he had not delayed in bringing his case before the court.
In the 17th century it was established that where there was a divergence between the common law and equity, equity would prevail.
The Courtroom of Chancery that administeredequity was abolished by the Judicature Acts 1873–1875. Since then, the common police force and equity accept been administered past the same courts.
Exercise 2. Put the paragraphs of the text into the correct
order.
Napoleon's Law
A. Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican soldier who became emperor of France after the French Revolution, established in
1800 five commissions to refine and organize the diverse legal systems of France. The result, enacted in 1804, was the Napoleon's Code.
B. The laws of much of continental Europe (particularly
French republic), of Quebec in Canada, and of much of Latin America — along with the ceremonious laws of Louisiana — owe their mod class largely to the work of a man who never even studied constabulary.
C. The code was adopted intact in most of the areas of
Europe that Napoleon dominated and spread from at that place across the Atlantic, taking root particularly in French-speaking American communities. Many of its principles are still in force today.
D. Some of its original 2,281 articles were afflicted past his thinking, even though he was completely cocky-taught in legal matters. The code was a triumphant attempt to create a legal
63
organization that treated all citizens as equals without regard to their rank or previous privileges. It was as well so clearly written that it could be read and understood by ordinary people at a time when just Latin scholars could make sense of the earlier laws handed down since Roman times.
Do three.
1) The Magna Carta is one of the principal documents of English
unwritten Constitution. Write a paragraph virtually the
Magna Carta. Apply the following information.
Magna Carta (Great Charter)
King John, 1215 / to sign / nether the threat of civil war to establish the principle of express government
King not to take certain taxes without the people's agreement a cornerstone of British liberties one of the oldest written constitutional papers
2) Learn to write an essay about pros and cons of a) English
mutual police, b) continental law. Use the information
given in the table.
When we write an essay giving the pros and cons of a topic, we usually write it in 4 paragraphs.
In the introduction, we state the topic. In the main
body in that location are ii paragraphs. In the second paragraph, nosotros write the pros of the topic giving reasons / examples and in the third paragraph, nosotros write the cons giving examples. In the conclusion, we summarise the topic and write our opinion. We use linking words to join our ideas (to listing points: first, second, furthermore, in add-on, etc; to show contrast: on the other hand, however, etc; to conclude: all in all, to sum up, in decision.
64
Blazon of legal
system
Mutual law
Continental law
Advantages
— rules are flexible;
— tin can change as circumstances alter
— piece of cake to notice the police force;
— the law is not a series of separate decisions in individual cases;
— the police force has a coherent general course and pattern
Disadvantages — law tin exist made past judges who are non role of the legislative body;
— the police force is made upwardly of divide decisions in individual cases;
— the law doesn't have a coherent general form and pattern
— laws fabricated by theorists;
— may non relate to actualities of real life
A. Read the essay and fill in the gaps with the words from
the list.
— firstly
— in addition
— for instance
— to begin with
— furthermore
— to conclude
— even so
Pros and cons of English Common Police
ane. English law is based on common law tradition. This organisation has developed over the years through the decisions of judges in the cases brought by them. The system has advantages and disadvantages.
2. ______________, the organization is flexible as legal principles are based on existent facts and may develop in individual cases.
_____________, the guess may apply existing precedents to each new case or interpret statutes.
______________, mutual law can alter as circumstances alter.
iii. ____________, there are also a number of disadvantages to common law. _______________, laws are often made by judges who are not part of the legislative body. __________________, the constabulary is made up of divide decisions in individual cases and it may not be easy sometimes to find the law as the law does not take a coherent general class and pattern.
iv. __________________, I believe that although English language common law has a number of disadvantages, it is a good legal system equally information technology has been working for centuries.
B. Write an essay about pros and cons of continental law.
66
Unit iii
AREAS OF Police
I. Lead-in
In the English and American legal systems the law is divided into 2 master areas. These are criminal law and ceremonious constabulary. What is the difference between them?
Look at these situations and decide if the person needs
a criminal lawyer or a civil lawyer. In other words, is information technology a
criminal matter or a civil affair?
a) Mr Bellerby is opening a new manufacturing plant. He needs to visit a lawyer to become a contract for all of his employees to sign.
A. criminal
B. ceremonious b) Mrs Robson is thinking about what she wants to happen to her house and possessions after her death. She needs to visit a lawyer to get the correct document, which is called a "will".
A. criminal
B. civil c) The police are taking Mr Dean to the police station because they say he stole a motorcar. He needs a lawyer to come and visit him there to tell him what to do.
A. criminal
B. civil d) Mr Flynn owns a eating place. He has a contract with a company to deliver fruit and vegetables to his eating place. The company didn't deliver them on the agreed date, and then Mr Flynn lost money because he could not open up his restaurant that twenty-four hour period.
Mr Flynn needs to see a lawyer about asking the commitment company to give him the money he lost.
A. criminal
B. ceremonious due east) Mr Allen is a bank director. The depository financial institution is saying that some money is missing. Mr Allen has a new car and expensive dress.
67
The police are coming to ask Mr Allen some questions. He needs a lawyer immediately.
A. criminal
B. civil
II. Reading
A) Pronounce the following words correctly.
national
[ˈnæʃənl]
to deter
[dɪˈtə:]
regional
[ˈri:dʒənl]
branch
[brɑ ntʃ]
local
[ˈləukəl]
executive
[ɪɡˈzekjutɪv]
international
[ˌɪntəˈnæʃənl]
legislative
[ˈledʒɪslətɪv]
individual
[ˈpraɪvɪt]
judiciary
[dʒu:ˈdɪʃɪərɪ]
treaty
[ˈtri:tɪ]
to exist
[ɪɡˈzɪst]
to concern
[kənˈsə n]
taxation
[tækˈseɪʃən]
dispute
[dɪsˈpju:t]
surround
[ɪnˈvaɪərənmənt]
attempt
[əˈtempt]
manufacturing [ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ]
probate
[ˈprəubɪt]
procedure
[prəˈsi:dʒə]
company
[ˈkʌmpənɪ]
individual
[ˌɪndɪˈvɪdjuəl]
constitutional [ˌkɔnstɪˈtju:ʃənl]
prosecution
[ˌprɔsɪˈkju:ʃən]
administrative [ədˈmɪnɪstrətɪv]
claimant
[ˈkleɪmənt]
society
[səˈsaɪətɪ]
to accuse
[əˈkju:z]
accused
[dɪˈfendənt]
offence
[əˈfens]
B) Vocabulary Notes
(1)
ane.
national (domestic) law национальное право
2.
level
regional
local
at the national level
уровень региональный
местный
на национальном уровне
3.
federal laws
федеральные законы
four.
land laws
законы штатов
68
(ii)
five.
international law
международное право
half dozen.
to regulate relations
between smb
регулировать отношения между кем-л.
7.
private denizen
частный гражданин
8.
to obey smth
подчиняться чему-л.
9.
international
organization
международная организация
10. the United Nations
Организация объединенных наций
(ООН)
xi. treaty
to enter into a
международный договор заключать
(3)
12. civil (private) police
гражданское (частное) право
thirteen. public law
публичное право
fourteen. to concern smth
затрагивать, касаться чего-л.
fifteen. disputes among smb
споры между кем-л.
16. inside a country
внутри страны
17. subject area of law
субъект права
18. to correct a wrong
восстановить справедливость
nineteen. to honour an understanding соблюдать договор
xx. to settle a dispute
разрешить, урегулировать спор
21. law of contract
договорное право
22. law of tort
деликтное право
23. law of trust
доверительное право
24. probate law
наследственное право
25. company law
закон о компаниях
26. employment law
трудовое право
27. state law
земельное право
28. family police force
семейное право
29. intellectual holding
law
закон об интеллектуальной собственности
69
(4)
xxx. criminal law
уголовное право
31. ramble law
конституционное право
32. administrative constabulary
административное право
(5)
33. to bargain with smth
иметь дело с чем-л.
34. to harm the wellbeingness
of society
наносить вредблагополучию общества
35. to commit a crime
совершить преступление
36. to deter smb from smth
удерживать кого-л. от чего-л.
37. like
похожий, подобный
(vi)
38. branch
executive
legislative
judiciary
ветвь власти исполнительная
законодательная
судебная
39. due to smth
в силу чего-л., благодаря чему-л.
forty. unwritten constitution
неписаная конституция
41. Magna Carta
Великая хартия вольностей
42. Bill of Rights
Билль о правах
(7)
43. to enforce a law
обеспечивать соблюдение закона
44. international trade
международная торговля
45. tax
налогообложение
46. environment protection защита окружающей среды
47. manufacturing
промышленное производство
70
(eight)
48. criminal procedure
уголовный процесс,
уголовное судопроизводство
49. civil procedure
гражданский процесс,
гражданское судопроизводство
50. criminal action
уголовное дело
51. civil action
гражданское дело
52. political party
сторона по делу
53. to bring an action
возбуждать дело
54. prosecution
обвинение, обвинитель
55. claimant (US plaintiff)
истец
56. to charge smb of smth
обвинить кого-л. в чем-л.
57. offence
правонарушение
58. accused
ответчик, обвиняемый, подсудимый
C) Text
AREAS OF Constabulary
(1) Every state has its own legal system and its own gear up of laws that are called national (domestic) police force.National law includes not simply law at the national level, but law at the state,
regional or local levels. For instance, the USA has federal laws and land laws besides.
(ii) International law regulates relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another. States concord to obey international police force by beingness members of a groovy international arrangement such as the
Un, or past inbound into treaties with one some other.
(3)Many countries make an important stardom betwixt
ceremonious (or private) and public law. Civil law concerns disputes
among citizens within a country, and public law concerns disputes between subjects of police force (citizens, companies) and the state.
71
In civil law in that location is the attempt to right a wrong, laurels an
agreement, or settle a dispute. The main categories of English civil police are: law of contract, law of tort, law of trust, probate
police force, company law, employment police, state police, family police force, intel
lectual holding law and others.
(4) The master categories of public law are criminal police force, constitutional police force and administrative law.
(five) Criminal police force deals with wrongs (crimes) which harm the
wellbeingness of social club, even when they are committed a crime confronting an individual. The chief aim of criminal law is to deter
other people from committing similar wrongs.
(half dozen) Constitutional law states the citizen's rights and duties.
Information technology too regulates the relationships between different branches of the state, such as the executive, the legislative and the judiciary
ones. Ramble police force is unremarkably plant in the Constitution of the country. However, in the U.k. of Great Uk and Northern Republic of ireland, due to historical and political reasons the
Constitution does not exist in one written document. The UK has an unwritten constitution — the constitution of this state is unremarkably found in statutes such as Magna Carta, Neb of Rights and others.
(7)Administrative police force is enforced by the executive branch of the authorities rather thanthe legislative and the judiciary branches. It regulates international trade, taxation, environ
ment protection, manufacturing.
(8) Criminal and civil procedures are dissimilar. Criminal
actions are nearly always started past the state. Civil deportment,on the other hand, are normally started by individuals.
The
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